Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT) for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Clinical Research Evidence
- HBOT UK
- May 2
- 17 min read
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects an estimated 1 in 100 people in the UK, and as of September 2024, over 204,000 individuals in England are waiting for an NHS autism assessment - 89% of them waiting longer than 13 weeks. Against this backdrop of growing need and limited conventional options, some researchers and families have turned their attention to hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) as a potential adjunct approach.
Research into HBOT for autism represents an area of active clinical investigation. It is not a UHMS-recognised or NHS-commissioned indication. Some small controlled trials and a 2025 meta-analysis report improvements in core ASD symptoms with HBOT, but evidence quality is rated as low-to-moderate, and a Cochrane review found no convincing benefit. Larger, rigorously designed randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are needed before any conclusions about efficacy can be drawn.
This article reviews the peer-reviewed evidence on HBOT and autism, including what the research shows, the protocols studied, the safety considerations, and the current NHS and regulatory context - enabling you to approach this topic with an accurate, evidence-based understanding.
Medical Disclaimer: This article is for general informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice. Always consult a qualified GP or healthcare professional before considering HBOT, particularly if you have any pre-existing medical conditions, are pregnant, or are undergoing medical treatment.
Table of Contents
1. What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder?
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition characterised by persistent differences in social communication and interaction, alongside restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour and interests. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) defines ASD across three severity levels, from Level 1 (requiring support) to Level 3 (requiring very substantial support), reflecting the wide heterogeneity of the condition.
Scale of Autism in the UK
Autism is more prevalent than many realise. Around 1 in 100 adults in England are autistic, a figure that has remained consistent across NHS adult psychiatric surveys conducted in 2007, 2014, and 2023/24. Diagnosis rates in children have risen sharply - one analysis reported a 787% increase in autism diagnoses in the UK between 1998 and 2018. As of September 2024, the NHS reports that over 204,000 people in England are awaiting an autism assessment, with 89% waiting longer than the recommended 13-week standard - a 96% increase in just two years.
In males, ASD prevalence in England is estimated at 2.8%, compared with 0.65% in females. A 2023 study estimated that between 150,000 and 500,000 individuals aged 20 to 49 in England may be autistic but undiagnosed. The NHS allocated £125 million in 2023/24 specifically for services benefiting people with learning disabilities and autistic individuals.
Pathophysiology: What Drives ASD Symptoms?
ASD has a complex, multifactorial aetiology involving hundreds of risk genes and significant gene-environment interactions. Neurologically, ASD is associated with altered brain structure and function - particularly in association areas that underpin social cognition. Research points to several biological mechanisms that may contribute to symptom expression, including:
Cerebral hypoperfusion (reduced blood flow to certain brain regions), positively correlated with symptom severity in some studies
Neuroinflammation and immune dysregulation, including elevated microglial activation
Oxidative stress, with evidence of impaired glutathione metabolism and elevated reactive oxygen species
Mitochondrial dysfunction, observed in approximately 5% of autistic children
Neurotransmitter abnormalities, including alterations in serotonin and glutamate systems
These pathophysiological features are relevant to understanding why HBOT has been proposed as a potential intervention, though the relationship between these mechanisms and HBOT's effects in ASD remains under investigation.
2. How Does Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Work?
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) involves breathing near-100% oxygen inside a pressurised chamber at greater than sea-level atmospheric pressure - typically between 1.3 and 2.4 atmospheres absolute (ATA). Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 ATA. By increasing the pressure, significantly more oxygen dissolves into the blood plasma, allowing it to reach tissues and regions with reduced or compromised blood flow.
Core Physiological Mechanisms
HBOT produces several well-documented physiological effects that form the theoretical basis for its investigation in ASD:
Increased tissue oxygenation - dissolved plasma oxygen reaches poorly perfused tissues, potentially addressing cerebral hypoperfusion observed in some autistic individuals
Anti-inflammatory action - HBOT reduces inflammatory markers, including C-reactive protein (CRP), and inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine cascades
Antioxidant upregulation - hyperbaric oxygen activates superoxide dismutase (SOD) and modulates reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, potentially reducing oxidative stress
Angiogenesis - HBOT promotes new blood vessel formation, improving cerebral perfusion over repeated sessions
Neural stem cell stimulation - animal studies suggest HBOT promotes the proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neural stem cells
Mitochondrial support - HBOT may improve mitochondrial function by activating ATP-sensitive potassium channels and reducing apoptosis
How These Mechanisms Relate to ASD
The theoretical rationale for HBOT in autism stems from the overlap between ASD pathophysiology and HBOT's known effects. A 2007 prospective pilot study published in BMC Pediatrics found that HBOT at 1.3–1.5 ATA with up to 100% oxygen significantly decreased inflammation (measured by CRP levels) in autistic children, without appreciably worsening oxidative stress. The authors noted the open-label design and absence of a blinded control group as key limitations. [5]
A 2024 animal study published in Frontiers in Neuroscience found that HBOT significantly increased social interaction and exploratory behaviours in a rat model of ASD (VPA-exposed rats), alongside elevated GRIN2B gene expression in the frontal lobe - though the authors emphasised that animal models cannot be directly extrapolated to human clinical outcomes. [9]
3. HBOT and Autism: What the Research Shows
This is the area of greatest interest - and the greatest controversy. The evidence base for HBOT and autism (ASD) is growing but remains limited in quality and scale. The full picture includes positive findings in some trials, null results in others, and an overarching Cochrane review that currently finds insufficient evidence for benefit.
UHMS and NHS Recognition Status
Evidence Note: Research into HBOT for autism represents an area of active clinical investigation. This is not a UHMS-recognised indication. The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) 15th Edition Indications Manual does not include autism spectrum disorder as an approved application for HBOT. Autism is similarly not commissioned by NHS England for HBOT. The NHS England Service Specification (January 2025) commissions HBOT only for decompression illness/gas embolism and radiation tissue injury in formal clinical settings. Any use of HBOT for autism is therefore investigational and off-label. The evidence continues to develop, and larger trials are required.
Positive Findings
A 2009 multicentre randomised controlled trial (RCT) published in BMC Pediatrics by Rossignol et al. enrolled 62 autistic children aged 2-7 years. Participants received 40 hourly sessions of HBOT at 1.3 ATA with 24% oxygen. The HBOT group showed statistically significant improvements in overall functioning, receptive language, social interaction, eye contact, and sensory/cognitive awareness compared to the sham group (slightly pressurised room air at 1.3 ATA, 21% oxygen). The authors noted that the sham condition - itself slightly pressurised - may have had its own mild physiological effects, representing a limitation of the control condition. [1]
A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis published in Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry by Tu et al. included 17 studies with a total of 890 patients (children and adolescents with ASD). The meta-analysis found moderately large, statistically significant effects of HBOT in reducing core autism symptoms. HBOT also showed significant improvement in communication, cognitive awareness, and behaviour. The authors explicitly identified poor study quality and high heterogeneity across included studies as major limitations, and called for larger, rigorously designed RCTs to confirm these findings. [2]
A 2024 descriptive study published in Cureus by Stoller et al. reviewed parent testimonies from 30 children and one adult with autism who underwent HBOT sessions at 1.5–2.0 ATA with 100% oxygen between January 2020 and July 2023. Four independent raters assessed parent testimonies using a 5-point Likert scale. The majority of parents reported improvement in their child's goals. The authors note this was a purely retrospective, parent-reported study with no control group - making it highly susceptible to reporting bias and placebo effect. [3]
A 2022 comparative study published in PubMed examined HBOT versus risperidone (an antipsychotic medication) in children with ASD. The study concluded that both HBOT and risperidone were effective in treating core autism symptoms, but HBOT produced better outcomes than risperidone therapy. The authors noted limitations including small sample size and lack of long-term follow-up.[4]
A 2007 prospective pilot study published in BMC Pediatrics by Rossignol and Rossignol enrolled 18 autistic children. HBOT at 1.3–1.5 ATA significantly decreased CRP-measured inflammation without worsening oxidative stress markers. Parental observations supported improvement across several ASD symptom domains. The authors noted the open-label, unblinded design and small cohort as primary limitations.[5]
Key Finding: The most recent and largest meta-analysis (Tu et al., 2025, n=890) reports moderately large significant effects of HBOT on core autism symptoms, communication, cognition, and behaviour - but the authors explicitly rate evidence quality as low-to-moderate due to study heterogeneity and design weaknesses.
Mixed and Null Results
Not all studies have shown consistent benefit. This is a critical part of the full evidence picture.
The 2016 Cochrane Systematic Review by Xiong et al., published in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, searched 25 databases and identified only one eligible RCT meeting their inclusion criteria (classical HBOT at >1 ATA with 100% oxygen).
That trial - Sampanthavivat et al. (2012), conducted in Thailand with 60 autistic children - found no statistically significant improvement in social interaction and communication, behavioural problems, communication and linguistic abilities, or cognitive function. Using GRADE criteria, the reviewers rated the evidence quality as low due to small sample size, wide confidence intervals, selection bias, and short follow-up duration.
The Cochrane review also found a significantly higher incidence of minor ear barotrauma in the HBOT group. The authors concluded there was "no evidence that hyperbaric oxygen therapy improves core or associated symptoms of ASD." [6]
A 2015 narrative review published in PubMed by Ghanizadeh and Moghimi-Sarani concluded that until more conclusive favourable results and long-term outcomes from well-designed controlled trials are available, HBO₂ should not be recommended for ASD treatment. [7]
A 2022 systematic review conducted at the University of South Florida examined 16 articles on HBOT efficacy for autism in children. Only 7 (44%) demonstrated significant improvements in ASD symptoms - 5 of which were statistically significant - while the remaining 9 articles (56%) showed statistically insignificant improvement. The authors characterised the overall data as inconclusive and noted HBOT "remains a controversial therapy for Autism treatment in children." [8]
Evidence Note: The divergence between the 2016 Cochrane review (no benefit, 1 eligible RCT) and the 2025 meta-analysis (significant benefit, 17 studies, n=890) reflects important methodological differences: the Cochrane review applied strict classical-HBOT criteria (100% O₂ at >1 ATA), while Tu et al. (2025) included both classical and modified protocols. Readers should be aware that protocol differences, measurement tools, and inclusion criteria significantly affect reported outcomes.
Current and Ongoing Clinical Trials
The original Rossignol et al. multicentre RCT was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under NCT00335790 and included children across multiple US clinical centres. Several further trials investigating HBOT for ASD have been registered, though many remain small-scale or have yet to report. The Cochrane review's authors noted that given the absence of high-quality evidence of effectiveness and the potential for adverse effects, the case for future large-scale RCTs requires careful methodological justification.[6] Researchers continue to call for adequately powered, double-blind, well-controlled trials using standardised outcome measures.
4. Treatment Protocols Used in Research
The protocols described below reflect only those used in published research settings. They are presented for educational purposes and do not represent clinical treatment recommendations.
Studies investigating HBOT for autism have used a range of protocols, reflecting the lack of a standardised approach:
Parameter | Range Studied in Research |
Pressure | 1.3 ATA to 2.0 ATA |
Oxygen concentration | 24% (near-ambient air) to 100% |
Session duration | 60 minutes per session |
Sessions per week | 1–5 sessions |
Total sessions | 20 to 80 sessions |
Setting | Clinical chamber; some studies used monoplace chambers |
The most commonly studied protocol in formal RCTs has been 1.3 ATA with 24% oxygen for 40 hourly sessions (Rossignol et al., 2009).[1] This is a non-classical HBOT protocol, as the UHMS defines classical HBOT as near-100% oxygen at greater than 1 ATA. The Sampanthavivat trial reviewed by Cochrane used a higher oxygen concentration.[6]
Some researchers have used 1.5 ATA to 2.0 ATA at 100% oxygen for paediatric HBOT (Stoller et al., 2024), more closely aligning with classical HBOT definitions. The Stoller study used five sessions per week.[3]
The 80-session protocol studied by Bent et al. (2012) used a clinical global impression improvement scale and found improvements on clinician-rated and parent-rated measures, though this was a single-site study. Research into optimal pressure, oxygen concentration, number of sessions, and frequency for ASD specifically remains ongoing. There is currently no consensus-supported protocol for this investigational application.
5. Safety Considerations and Contraindications
This article is for general informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice. Hyperbaric oxygen chambers supplied by Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment UK are wellness and professional equipment, not MHRA-regulated medical devices for the treatment of disease. Always consult a qualified GP or healthcare professional before considering HBOT, particularly if you have any pre-existing medical conditions, are pregnant, or are undergoing medical treatment.
HBOT has a well-established safety profile in approved clinical indications. In the context of autism, adverse events reported in research have generally been mild. However, specific considerations apply to paediatric populations.
Reported Side Effects in ASD Studies
The most consistently reported adverse effect in HBOT autism trials is ear barotrauma - pressure-related injury to the middle ear. The 2016 Cochrane review found a significantly higher rate of minor ear barotrauma in the HBOT group compared to sham controls.[6] This is a well-recognised complication of all HBOT sessions and is more common in individuals who have difficulty equalising middle ear pressure, which may include some autistic children who struggle to follow verbal instructions during pressurisation.
Other potential side effects that may occur with HBOT include:
Sinus squeeze (barosinusitis) - pressure-related sinus discomfort or pain
Oxygen toxicity - rare at pressures used in ASD studies; risk increases at higher ATA levels (above 2.0 ATA with 100% oxygen)
Visual changes - temporary near-sightedness (myopia) reported with extended courses; typically reverses after treatment ends
Claustrophobia - anxiety in enclosed spaces, potentially higher among autistic individuals
Fatigue - transient fatigue following sessions has been noted
Absolute Contraindications
HBOT is absolutely contraindicated in:
Untreated pneumothorax (collapsed lung)
Active use of certain chemotherapy agents (e.g., doxorubicin, bleomycin, disulfiram)
Congenital spherocytosis (rare red blood cell disorder)
Relative Contraindications and Precautions
Medical review is essential before HBOT is considered by anyone with:
Upper respiratory infection or significant congestion (increases barotrauma risk)
History of ear surgery, perforated tympanic membrane, or Eustachian tube dysfunction
History of seizures or epilepsy (important consideration in ASD, where seizure co-occurrence is estimated at 20–30%)
Asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Pregnancy
Any active cancer receiving certain treatment agents
Given that a significant proportion of autistic individuals have co-occurring epilepsy, anxiety, or respiratory conditions, an individual medical assessment by a qualified GP or specialist is essential before any HBOT is considered. This is not optional.
6. Who Is Currently Exploring HBOT for Autism?
Interest in HBOT for autism comes from several overlapping communities - all of which approach the question from different angles.
Research Community
Academic researchers in paediatric neurology, developmental medicine, and integrative medicine have published the growing body of studies reviewed above. Groups in the United States, Thailand, Egypt, and China have contributed most of the published clinical data. The call from researchers such as Tu et al. (2025) for "rigorously designed, high-quality studies" to confirm preliminary findings reflects the direction of serious scientific inquiry in this area.[2]
Families and Caregivers
In the UK and across Europe, many families of autistic children have sought HBOT independently, often prompted by limited conventional options and long NHS waiting times. As of September 2024, over 204,000 people in England await assessment, and families in some regions face waits of more than two and a half years before seeing a specialist.[1] This context drives personal exploration of complementary approaches, though it should never replace formal clinical assessment and established interventions such as applied behaviour analysis, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy.
Healthcare Practitioners
Some integrative and functional medicine practitioners in the UK and Europe offer HBOT as part of broader treatment programmes for neurodevelopmental conditions. It is important to note that HBOT for autism is not NHS-commissioned, and no UK clinical guideline (including NICE) currently recommends HBOT as a treatment for ASD. Any practitioner offering HBOT for autism should be transparent about the investigational nature of the evidence. Families should seek practitioners who follow formal clinical protocols, conduct baseline assessments, and refer to appropriate specialists.
7. Key Questions About HBOT and Autism
Q. Is HBOT an approved treatment for autism?
A. No - HBOT is not an approved treatment for autism. Research into HBOT for ASD is an area of active clinical investigation and is not a UHMS-recognised indication. Neither the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society nor NHS England recognises autism as a commissioned indication for HBOT. Any use of hyperbaric oxygen treatment for autism is therefore investigational and off-label. Families and clinicians considering this approach should do so with a full understanding of the current evidence limitations.
Q. What does the research say about HBOT for autism?
A. The research shows mixed results. A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis (Tu et al.) of 17 studies and 890 patients found moderately large, statistically significant effects on core ASD symptoms, communication, cognitive awareness, and behaviour. However, the same authors rated evidence quality as low-to-moderate due to high heterogeneity and poor study quality.[2] In contrast, the 2016 Cochrane review found no evidence of benefit from the single eligible RCT it identified, and noted a higher rate of ear barotrauma in the HBOT group. The overall evidence is genuinely mixed and currently insufficient to draw firm clinical conclusions. [6]
Q. What pressure levels are used in research for autism?
A. Studies have used pressures ranging from 1.3 ATA to 2.0 ATA. The most cited RCT (Rossignol et al., 2009) used 1.3 ATA with 24% oxygen - a non-classical protocol.[1] Some descriptive studies have used 1.5–2.0 ATA with 100% oxygen. There is no consensus on the optimal pressure level for ASD-specific protocols. The Cochrane review restricted its analysis to classical HBOT (>1 ATA, ~100% O₂), finding insufficient eligible trials to draw conclusions. [6]
Q. How many sessions have been studied for HBOT for autism?
A. Published studies have examined between 20 and 80 HBOT sessions. The most commonly cited RCT protocol used 40 hourly sessions. Some clinical case series have administered up to 80 sessions with a clinical global impression tool measuring outcomes after 40 and 80 sessions. There is no established or consensus-supported protocol for the number of sessions appropriate for ASD, as this has not been validated in adequately powered trials. [1][3]
Q. Is HBOT safe for children with autism?
A. HBOT has a generally well-tolerated safety profile, but minor ear barotrauma is a significant concern in autistic children - particularly those who struggle to equalise middle ear pressure on command. The Cochrane review found a significantly higher rate of ear barotrauma events in the HBOT group compared to controls. Parents and practitioners should be aware that approximately 20–30% of autistic individuals also have co-occurring epilepsy, which is a relative contraindication requiring medical review before HBOT. A formal medical assessment is mandatory before any session is considered. [6]
Q. Is HBOT available on the NHS for autism?
A. No. NHS England's HBOT Service Specification (January 2025) commissions HBOT only for decompression illness/gas embolism and radiation tissue injury. Autism is not a commissioned NHS indication for HBOT. Families seeking hyperbaric oxygen treatment for autism in the UK do so privately, at their own expense, without NHS clinical pathway support.[10]
Q. Can HBOT be used at home for autism?
A. Some families do use home HBOT chambers for autistic family members. Home chambers are available at various pressure levels, including 1.3–1.5 ATA soft-shell chambers. It is important to understand that home-use chambers are not MHRA-regulated medical devices for the treatment of disease. Any home use should be preceded by a full medical assessment, must respect all contraindications, and should be undertaken with ongoing clinical oversight. Ear pressure equalisation instruction and monitoring are particularly important for autistic children who may not be able to communicate discomfort.
Q. Can HBOT be combined with other autism therapies?
A. Several studies have investigated HBOT as an adjunct - rather than a replacement - for established behavioural and developmental therapies such as applied behaviour analysis (ABA), speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy. The 2022 comparative study examined HBOT alongside standard care. No published research establishes that HBOT should replace any evidence-based autism intervention; at best, the research frames it as a possible complementary approach pending further trial data. [4]
Q. What should I ask my doctor before trying HBOT for autism?
A. Before considering HBOT for yourself or your child with ASD, ask your GP or specialist the following:
Does my child/do I have any contraindications, including seizure history, ear conditions, or respiratory conditions?
Is my child able to equalise ear pressure, and what happens if they cannot communicate discomfort?
Is there an experienced clinical team overseeing this protocol?
What outcome measures will be used to assess whether HBOT is producing any benefit?
Is participation in a formal clinical trial available?
Q. Does health insurance cover HBOT for autism in the UK?
A. HBOT for autism is not NHS-commissioned and is unlikely to be covered by standard UK private health insurance, as it is not a recognised clinical indication. Families should confirm coverage directly with their insurer before proceeding, as policies vary. Some specialist insurers may consider coverage if the treatment is overseen by a qualified medical professional within a formal protocol, but this is not standard practice.
Q. How does HBOT differ from mild hyperbaric oxygen therapy for autism?
A. Classical HBOT - as defined by the UHMS - uses near-100% oxygen at pressures above 1 ATA. "Mild HBOT" typically refers to lower pressures (often 1.3 ATA) with ambient or slightly enriched oxygen concentrations. The Rossignol et al. (2009) RCT and several other autism studies used a mild/non-classical protocol at 1.3 ATA with 24% oxygen. The Cochrane review specifically excluded non-classical trials. The effectiveness comparison between classical and mild HBOT in ASD has not been established in adequately powered head-to-head trials. [1][6]
8. Summary of Current Evidence
The current body of evidence on hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) for autism spectrum disorder is active, growing, and genuinely divided. A 2025 meta-analysis of 17 studies and 890 patients found moderately large improvements in core ASD symptoms, communication, behaviour, and cognitive awareness - but explicitly rated evidence quality as low-to-moderate, citing high heterogeneity and methodological limitations across included studies.[2]
In contrast, the 2016 Cochrane systematic review - applying stricter inclusion criteria - found only one eligible RCT and concluded there was no evidence that HBOT improves core or associated ASD symptoms.[6]
HBOT for autism is not a UHMS-recognised indication. It is not commissioned by NHS England. Any use of HBOT for ASD is investigational and off-label. The NHS England Service Specification (January 2025) restricts commissioned HBOT to decompression illness and radiation injury.[10]
The theoretical biological rationale - addressing cerebral hypoperfusion, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress observed in some autistic individuals - is plausible but not yet clinically validated at the scale and quality required for guideline-level evidence. Safety data suggest mild HBOT is generally well tolerated, but ear barotrauma is a meaningful risk, particularly in paediatric populations. The co-occurrence of epilepsy in approximately 20–30% of autistic individuals adds an important medical safeguard consideration.
What remains uncertain is whether any benefit observed in smaller trials will hold under larger, double-blind, adequately powered RCTs with standardised protocols and validated outcome measures. Ongoing research is needed to answer this question definitively.
Medical Disclaimer: This article is for general informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice. Hyperbaric oxygen chambers supplied by Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment UK are wellness and professional equipment, not MHRA-regulated medical devices for the treatment of disease. Always consult a qualified GP or healthcare professional before considering HBOT, particularly if you have any pre-existing medical conditions, are pregnant, or are undergoing medical treatment.
This research review is published by Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment UK, a specialist hyperbaric chamber supplier and installer based in Cleveleys, Lancashire, UK, with 120+ chamber installations across the UK, Europe, and internationally. Member of the International Board of Undersea Medicine (IBUM) and the International Hyperbarics Association (IHA). Information about available HBOT equipment for clinical and home environments can be found at hyperbaricoxygentreatment.uk.
9. References & Medical Sources
Rossignol DA, Rossignol LW, Smith S, et al. "Hyperbaric treatment for children with autism: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial." BMC Pediatrics, 2009. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19284641/
Tu P, Halili X, Zhang S, Yang J, Xiao Y. "The effectiveness of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis." Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39826608/
Stoller KP, et al. "A Descriptive Study on the Impacts of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy on Autistic Individuals Using Parent Testimonies." Cureus, 2024. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10995753/
Shaaban SY, et al. "Therapeutic Impacts of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy and Risperidone on Core Symptoms of Autism." PubMed, 2022. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38050572/
Rossignol DA, Rossignol LW. "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may improve symptoms in autistic children." Medical Hypotheses, 2006 (pilot study); full prospective pilot published in BMC Pediatrics, 2007. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2244616/
Xiong T, Chen H, Luo R, Mu D. "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)." Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2016. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6464144/
Ghanizadeh A, Moghimi-Sarani E. "Using hyperbaric oxygen for autism treatment: A review." PubMed, 2015. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26403019/
University of South Florida Research Conference. "Efficacy of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy on Autism in Children: A Systematic Review." USF Undergraduate Research Journal, 2022. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/usf_ourconference/2022/health_sciences/12/
Frontiers in Neuroscience. "Effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on autistic behaviors in the valproic acid rat model." Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2024. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2024.1385189/full
NHS England. "Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Services (All Ages) Service Specification." January 2025. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy-services-all-ages-Service-specification-January-2025.pdf
BMJ. "Autism and ADHD place 'unprecedented' demand on NHS." BMJ, 2024. https://www.bmj.com/content/385/bmj.q802
Priory Group. "Autism Statistics UK 2026." 2024/2025. https://www.priorygroup.com/autism/autism-statistics
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